Cat in the Rain – Woman the Inequality

CHAPTER TWO SEMANTICS AND STRUCTURE OF VERBAL PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS The subject matter of our graduation paper is semantics and structure of vocal phraseological units . The face oral communication communi throw offion is extremely rich in vocal phraseological units due to their grammatical features and the diversity of their geomorphologic pillowcases. It is be intimaten that the verb is endowed with the ri federal agency grammatical categories in the system of the fo chthonics of destination. The same grammatical features pass from the verb to communicative stresss. Becoming a comp nonp beilnt of an emphasis, the verb endows its idiom with its grammatical and functional characteristic features.The classification system of phraseological units suggested by Professor A. V. Koonin is the latest forbiddenstanding achievement in the Russian theory of phraseology. The classification is found on the combined structural semantic dogma and it withal con postrs the quotient of st might of phraseological units ( ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , , 2008 ). Phraseological units atomic chip 18 sub change integrity into the next four classes jibe to their function in communication driven by their structural semantic characteristics. 1.Nominative phraseological units argon represented by youngsworthiness assemblys, including the peerless(prenominal)s with unitary con fountringful devise, and coordinative phrases of the type wear and tear. The prototypic class besides intromits account book- groups with a predicative structure, such(prenominal)(prenominal) as the prevail flies, and, also, predicative phrases of the type see how the land lies, ships that pass in the night. 2. Nominative communicative phraseological units include explicate- groups of the type to break the markpatch the ice is broken, vocal news program- groups which atomic number 18 transform into a sentence when the verb is apply in the Passive Voice. 3.Phraseological units which argon neither nominative nor communicative include interjectional discussion- groups. 4. Communicative phraseological units be represented by pr e in truth(prenominal)wherebs and presupposeings. Thus, communicatory idioms proceed to the class of nominative and nominative communicative phraseological units, due to the fact that some of them ar intelligence gangs, patch some others dirty dog be both phrase combinations and sentences. Word- groups whitethorn be gener al unmatchabley describe through the pattern of arrangement of the constituent members. The term syntactic structure implies the description of the assemble and arrangement of member de perishry as parts of speech.We whitethorn, for instance, describe the script group as make up of an Adjective and a Noun ( clever man, red crown, and so on ), a Verb a Noun ( add books, build houses , and so on ) , or a Noun, a Preposition and a Noun ( a par nutrition backside in of colour, a mat ter of sizeableness, etc. ). The syntactic structure of the nominal groups clever man and red flower whitethorn be represented as A+ N, that of the vocal groups take books and build houses as V+ N. These formulas can be apply to describe all the executable structures of incline word groups. We can say , e. . , that the vocal groups comprise the following structural formulas V+N ( to build houses), V+ prp +N ( to af self-colored on individual ), V+ N+ prp +N (to conduct something against somebody ), V+N+V ( to falsify somebody work), V+V (to bond to cut ). The structure of word-groups may be also described in relation to the strait word, e. g. the structure of the same verbal groups ( to build houses, to rely on somebody ) is represented as to build +N, to rely +on +N. In this case it is usual to blab of the patterns of word groups save non of formulas.The term pattern implies that we are disquisition of the structure of the word group in which a given wor d is employ as its school principal. The interdependence of the pattern and importee of head spoken communication can be easily perceived by comparing word groups of divers(prenominal) patterns in which the same head-word is apply. For good modeling, in verbal groups the head word mean is semantically diametrical in the patterns mean +iV ( mean something ) and mean + V ( inf. ) ( mean to do something). Three patterns with the verb nark as the head word represent three contrary moments of this verb, e. g. spawn +N ( get a letter, information, m matchlessy, etc. , get +to +N( get to London, to the Institute, etc. ) , get + N+V (inf. ) (get somebody to come, to do the work ). Broadly give tongue toing we may conclude that as a rule the difference in the core of the head word is conditi geniusd by a difference in the pattern of the word group in which this word is utilise. In the same elan as we speak of word patterns, the structure of phraseological units is also based on certain patterns. We are going to focus on verbal phraseological units which compared to free word groups discussed above catch structural constancy, semantic unity and figurativeness.The structure of the English phraseological units is more than(prenominal) than more variegated. Within English verbal idioms the following syntactical relations are observed 1. Verb + direct object 1) To beat the stemma to do nonhing 2) To c bosom the whip Coll. To use mavins power or influence over other people in a vigorous or severe manner be in control 3) To ride the storm to control or deal with a proportion of pateacious bother or violence 4) To bell the cat Coll, rather old- fash . To take a risk or do something that is dangerous, esp. for the strong of others 5) To give the chop Coll. To dismiss mortal from his job to destroy a plan, idea 2.Verb + prepositional object 1) To clutch at a straw Coll. To be willing to interpret anything to get forbidden of a danger ous, difficult situation 2) To strain at a gnat non fml. To trouble unityself virtually a matter of no importance 3) To cut with a knife not fml. To be able to conceptualisation the emotions and opinions of the people in a room, esp. when these are unpleasant 4) To play with fire non fml. To take risks, esp. when these are foolish and unnecessary 5) To fall on deaf ears to be or confront unnoticed or disregarded 3. Verb + direct object + prepositional object 1) To kill two birds with genius st unitary to follow up two purposes with unrivalled action ) To victuals the wolf from the door Coll. Often humor. To pr matter hunger 3) To cat the kibosh on Coll. To spoil or prevent a plan from happening or organism successful 4) To get a kick from Coll. To get a wait oninging of plea sure, excitement, or wonderment from 5) To get superstars books on Not fml. To get restrain of something or somebody violently seize 4. Verb + indirect object + direct object 1) To giv e his head Not fml. To allow some ane do what he pauperisms 2) To give her the gun Coll. To addition speed when operate a vehicle, esp. a auto 3) To register a clean pair of heels Not fml. To run outside(a) as fast as possible from some unrivaled or something ) To do justice to show the true value of a psyche or thing treat a mortal or thing as he /it deserves 5. Verb + adverb 1) To disinfect under the carpet Not fml. To hide or forget something shameful, unpleasant 2) To drive into a boxful Not fml. To put a person into a difficult or awkward situation 3) To pitch bulge out the gauntlet to invite some angiotensin-converting enzyme to fight, argue, defend himself or his opinions 4) To sit on wizards buy the farawayms Not fml. To do nothing be inactive 6. Verb + object + adverb 1) To build castles in the air to deem dreams, hopes, or desires that are un carely to shape reality ) To consent a finger in e truly pie Not fml. To be concerned in some way with a large mo of different plans, arrangements at the same time 3) To keep 1s finger on the metre Coll. To know exactly what is happening in an organization, society, etc. 4) To begin star foot in the labored Coll, often humor. To be genuinely old or ill be near death 5) To have a frog in enthusiasticshots throat Not fml. To be unable to speak clearly because integrity pick outs to cough or has a sore throat From the point of envision of their grammatical structure verbal idioms are divided into the following groups ) To be functioning as a link verb and the whole unit expresses state, e. g 1) To be on a congenial footing with somebody to behave towards or deal with each other in a friendly way 2) To be the tops Coll. To be the best of cardinals kind be of rattling high character reference 3) To be amidst the devil and the deep sea having two possible courses of action open to star, both of which are dangerous, unpleasant 4) To be one jump ahead of Not fml. To f oresee what a person is the alike(p)s ofly to do next or what is round to happen and be prepared for it to keep sparingly ahead of something 5) To be at loggerheads to disagree or contention with someoneIdioms beginning with the verb to have also belong here, e. g 1) To have someones blood on ones hands to be responsible for someones death 2) To have on ones brain Not fml. To be continuously thinking or forebodinging about something 3) To have a maggot in ones brain Coll. rare. To have strange ideas or desires 4) To have stir up fingers Not fml. To have an ability or a tendency to steal things 5) To have a brain like a extend Not fml. To be unable to believe things correctly or keep information in ones mind b) Idioms beginning with other notional verbs and the whole unit expresses action, e. g ) To gain body politic to advance, gear up ramp up become more authoritative or powerful 2) To lead a entranced flavor Not fml. To have continuous good fortune in avoiding accidents or harm 3) To fringe the hay Coll, To lie down to sleep go to bed 4) To make a clean meet of smth. Not fml. To subscribe to something Verbal phraseological units may be classified in accordance with their structure into a) unity summit phraseological units They are composed of a notional and a form word , and have one semantic centre , such as 1) To conduct for it Coll. To behave in a way that causes trouble, anger, etc. , esp. hat causes some other person to be violent 2) To come it over Coll. To show by ones behavior that one believes oneself to be better than someone 3) To have it in for Coll. To be determined to cause harm or injury to a person, organization, etc. 4) To jump to it Coll. To show immediate and fast willingness, e. g. to obey an order or request b) more summit phraseological units They are composed of two or more notional lyric and form words ,and have two or more semantic centres , such as 1) To take the bull by the horns Coll. To de al with something difficult boldly or without hinder 2) To ill the jack that laid the golden eggs to destroy the chief cause of ones profit or success 3) To know on which side ones bread is savetered Coll. To know what to do in order to be liked or approved of by the people in power 4) To have a millstone round ones sleep together to cause much and continuous trouble to someone 5) To get hold of the price end of the stick Coll. To mis bring in something on the whole Academician V. V. Vinogradov spoke of the semantic alternate in phraseological units as a means resulting from a amusing chemical combination of words.This seems a very apt coincidence because in both cases between which the parallel is drawn an entirely new quality comes into hold upence ( ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , , 2008 ). The factors accounting for semantic changes may be subdivided into two groups Linguistic and Extra- linguistic causes . By extra linguistic causes we mean various changes in the life of speech community, changes in economic and social structure, changes of ideas, scientific concepts, way of life and other spheres of world activities as hypothesizeed in word messages.Although objects, concepts, etc. change in the course of time , yet in some cases the words which cite them are retained, but the meaning of such words is changed. E. g The phraseological unit blow ones own trumpet Coll. To praise ones own ambitions arose from the fact that in chivalric times heralds welcomed the sound of the trumpet of the knights, coming into the competition. When the social practice had disappeared and the phrase was reinterpreted, the communication between the meaning of the phraseological unit and the typographical error meanings of its components disrupted.Now the phraseological unit blow ones trumpet and variable word combination blow ones trumpet to play on ones trumpet are homonyms. some other phraseological unit is show the white square Not fml,( becomi ng rare) to reveal ones fear or cowardly feelings. Referring to a cock ( a male chicken) that has been bred for fighting as a sport. If the chicken had any white feathers, it was thought to be badly bred. The phraseological unit show the white feather had spawned in England and Australia, the custom of which is to send a white feather to demos, evading from military services. in that respect are phrasal verbs unique(predicate) to the English expression ,e. g 1) spend a penny up to leave abandon 2) Let on to defecate to tattle. With regard to the temperament of these verbal complexes, opinions of linguists differ. They called them compound verbs, verbs with a postposition, postpositive verb with a prefix. These verbs in the English language are usually called phrasal verbs. Recently, a successful term post-verbs has appeared for the number component of these formulations. What is a post-verb? It cannot be a preposition, as it is used but in the verbal complex, and unlike t he preposition it is always under the stress.It cannot be an adverb , as it is not marked as a part of the sentence. Consequently, it cannot be a prepositional adverb. To understand the nature of a post-verb , we should mention Smirnitskys important statement, that post-verbs are words, as it combines with verbal components, having a mental image of changing words. Thus, all verbal complexes give in, give up, let on , take in and so on, are static phrases. The semantic incline affecting phraseological units does not consist in a holy change of meanings of each divulge constituent part of the unit.The meanings of the constituents merge to produce an entirely new meaning e. g. to have a bee in ones bonnet gist to have an obsession about something to be fiber or even a littler mad . The humorous metaphoric comparison with a person who distracted by a bee continually buzzing under his cap has become erased and half-forgotten, and the speakers using the expression hardly thin k of bees or bonnets but accept it in its transferred sense obsessed, eccentric . That is what is meant when phrasological units are verbalize to be characterized by semantic unity.It is this feature that makes phraseological units similar to words both words and phraseological units possess semantic unity. Most Russian scholars today accept the semantic criterion of distinguishing phraseological units from free word groups as the major one and base their research work in the field of phraseology on the definition of a phraseological unit offered by Professor A. V. Koonin A phraseological unit is a stable word group characterized by a tout ensemble or partially transferred meaning. The definition clearly suggests that the degree of semantic change in a phraseological unit may vary.In actual fact the semantic change may affect either the whole word group or wholly one of its components. Thus, consort to the semantic structure , verbal idioms are divided into two groups a) idioms with solely transferred meaning, e. g 1) To skate on the ice Coll. To do something dangerous 2) To wear ones heart on ones arm Not fml. To allow other people to know what one is feeling show ones emotions 3) To have ones heart in ones boots Coll. To feel dis heroismd or fearful 4) To have ones heart in ones mouth To feel afraid or anxious, e. . when waiting for something to happen 5) To make a mountain out of a molehill to worry about or become emotional about matters that are not really important at all b) idioms with partially transferred meaning in which one of the components preserves its current meaning, the other is used in a transferred meaning, e. g 1) To break new ground to do something new, make a discovery 2) To change dollars in midstream Not fml. To change ones opinion in middle of something, esp. to decide to alimentation the opposite or a different side 3) To know ones onions Coll.To know by powerfuls all the information, facts, etc. , concerned with ones work be experienced 4) To save ones unclothe Coll. To escape or help someone to escape from a danger about of the verbal idioms are clearly hyperbolic, for example 1) Eat out of smbs hand Not fml. To have ( a person) in ones power so that he will do whatsoever one wishes, esp. because he admires one Then, having had the fans eating out of his hand he admitted I didnt enjoy it. I dont consider myself in show phone line after just one professional act. 2) Flog a dead provide Coll.To keep trying to get pleasure from something that cannot or can no longer give it You are flogging a dead horse by asking him to lend you money he hasnt even got enough for himself. The idiom refers to a person who beats a horse to make it go even though it is dead, thus to doing something that is drop offly useless. In many verbal hyperbolic idioms, including borrowed ones , at that place arent corresponding word combinations and they are based not on real, but imaginary situation. Etymological research provides an opportunity to throw some light on the rigin of some idioms, and then to establish its metaphorical character. So, an idiom give smb. the cold shoulder to be unfriendly to someone, esp. by refusing to speak to or meet him, usually because one is angry , offended . hostile is not related to peoples shoulder. It means to behave towards someone in a way that is not at all friendly, sometimes for reasons that this person does not understand. Metaphorical character of verbal idioms has been naturalised by comparing the components of verbal idioms with the same words outside the idiom, e. 1) Hitch ones hearts to a star Lit. To have noble or morally improving aims or desires He was a boy from a poor family who had hitched his wagon to a star and was determined to get a good education for himself. 2) Twist round ones little finger Coll. To have the ability to diverge ( a person) to do exactly as one wants Shell have no problem getting permit to g o on holiday with a friend because she can twist her father round her little finger. Metonomical transformations occur much less in verbal idioms, than metaphorical ones, e. g 1) imbibe ones hand in Not fml.To obtain or keep ones skill in a fussy activity by practicing it If you are reasonably clever it wont take you long to get your hand in at card game. 2) Make a clean breast of smth. Not fml. To admit to something confess Mrs. Lyons, give tongue to I you are taking a very owing(p) office and putting yourself in a very false position by not making an dead clean breast of all that you know. ( Conan Doyle) . From the semantic point of view English verbal idioms may express 1) Success, happiness, flock 2) Emotions and feelings 3) Relations between people 4) Behaviour 5) Intellect ) Death 7) Features of different phenomena Success, happiness, luck It is cognize that human life is not cakes and ale as a person has to meet a luck of hardships, which he has to overcome on his way to success. This idea is rendered by such verbal idioms as 1) To study the day quite an rhet. To win in a competition, argument, etc. be successful in ones efforts 2) To be born with a silver spoon in ones mouth Not fml. To have wealthy parents be born into a rich family 3) To kill two birds with one stone to fulfill two purposes with one action 4) To set the Thames on fire Not fml.To do something wonderful that causes much excitement and gains a wide reputation 5) To gain ground to advance, make progress become more important or powerful Emotions, feelings 1) To jump out of ones skin Coll. To show or have feelings of great shock, fear, or surprise , esp. by moving very short 2) To hang ones hand to feel ashamed about something feel or look guilty, sorry 3) To take it on the chin ?oll. To father ( a misfortune , disappointment) with courage 4) To break smbs heart to make or become very sad 5) To have butterflies in ones stomach Coll. To feel nervous, anxious, etc. , esp. hen waiting for something Relations between people 1) To be on a friendly footing with somebody to behave towards or deal with each other in a friendly way 2) To greet somebody with open arms Not fml. To welcome somebody in a generous way 3) To give somebody the cold shoulder Coll. To be unfriendly to someone, esp. by refusing to speak to or meet him, usually because one is angry , offended . 4) To look down ones nose at somebody Not fml. To regard somebody or someone with scorn or dislike 5) To rub someones nose in it Not fml. To keep on reminding someone about something he has done wrong, esp. n an unkind manner Behaviour 1) To hold ones head high to act proudly or bravely, in front of people, esp. when one has suffered misfortune 2) To put ones foot down Coll. To be firm in ones purpose or desires , e. g. not to allow another person to do something 3) To keep ones hair on Coll. To keep calm not become angry, excited, etc. 4) To keep ones chin up Coll. Not t o show feelings of fear, sadness, etc. , when faced with disappointments, worries, or difficulties 5) To behave like a bear with a sore head Coll. To behave impatiently, in a bad set way Intellect ) To have an old head on young shoulders rather oldfash. To have the wisdom, judgment, etc. , that is ordinarily found only in an older and more experienced person 2) To rack ones brains Not fml. To think hard about something, esp. to try and work out the repartee to a difficult problem 3) To have a level head Not fml. To be calm, conscious and able to judge well, esp. in difficult situations 4) To have ones head screwed on the right way Not fml. To be sensible not silly Death 1) To give up the stalk Coll. To split up to stop putting any effort into doing something 2) To be on ones at long rifle legs Coll.About to fracture or to fall down from tiredness or illness 3) To go the way of all flesh- Pomp. To die 4) To be called to ones eternal rest Euph. To die 5) To kiss th e dissipate Coll. To die or become ill, or to stop making or creation useful 6) To turn up ones toes Coll, humor. To die 7) To pay the debt of nature Old-fash, rather rhet. To die Failure 1) To burn ones fingers Not fml. To suffer from something that one has done or been concerned with, esp. because one failed to consider the possible results 2) To come a cropper Coll. To fall badly or heavily, e. . from a horse to suffer disappointment or sudden misfortune 3) To be on ones bones to be in a difficult situation 4) To get into hot water Coll. To fall in trouble 5) To get off on the wrong foot Not fml. To begin something badly Risk 1) To carry( or take) ones life in ones hands to risk ones life 2) To skate on thin ice to put oneself in a dangerous position to take risks 3) To send to his long account Euph, old-fash. To kill someone 4) To play with fire Not fml. To take risks, esp. when these are foolish and unnecessary 5) To put all ones eggs in one wicket Not fml.To a llow all ones hopes for the future to depend on one event or person to risk all ones money, time, interest, etc. in one business sector or effort 6) To risk ones neck Not fml. To take a great risk in doing something Deception 1) To hand smb. a lemon to cheat, deceive somebody 2) To throw dust in someones eyes Coll. To confuse someone or take his forethought away from something that one does not wish him to see or know about 3) To play cat and black eye with Not fml. To confuse someone unintentionally deceive someone, esp. by keeping him from realizing what is actually happening to him 4) To twirl ones leg Coll.To make fun of a person in a friendly way, e. g. by trying to make him believe something that is not true 5) To make a fool of smb. Not fml. To cause oneself to appear stupid or foolish Euphemism plays an important role in the creation of idiomatical synonyms among verbal phraseological units. For instance synonyms of the verb to die are very numerous 1) To breathe ones last Rather rhet. To die 2) To give up the ghost Coll. To die 3) To join the great majority Old-fash, euph. To die 4) To pay the debt of nature Old-fash, rather rhet. To die 5) To turn up ones toes Coll, humor.To die Another example is the synonyms of the verb to irritate, to annoy 1) To get smbs goat Coll. To cause someone much annoyance 2) To make smbs blood boil Not fml. To cause someone to be angry 3) To rub the wrong way Coll. To annoy or cause offence to a person According to Professor A. V. Koonin verbal idioms are divided into non- proportional degree and comparative idioms. Noncomparative verbal idioms are phraseological units with subordinate or coordinative structure. The upshot of verbal idioms with coordinative structure is very few. Their characteristic feature is the two-term structure.In phraseology there are two types of coordinative connections connective coordinative and separative coordinative connection. Connective coordinative connection Verb al idioms of this type are usually pairs of synonymous idioms 1) Bill and coo Not fml. , rather old-fash. To show issue in a playful way, esp. by kissing and whispering to each other He took his girlfriend space after the party and they stayed in the car billing and cooing for a long time before she went into her house. 2) chirp and haw Coll. To speak without saying exactly what one means , e. g. hen one needs more time to consider a matter He always hums and haws before taking a firm decision. Separative coordinative connection There are very few verbal idioms of this type. They include such idioms as 1) Sink or swim Not fml. To be safe , succeed, etc. , or suffer fat failure or loss He has refused to give us any more help, and has leave us to sink and swim by our own efforts. 2) Stand or fall to be completely dependent on( a principle, the result of uncertain situation, etc. ) for ones continued existence, good fortune, etc. We stand or fall by our belief in free speech .Idioms with subordinate structure can have the objective or the objective adverbial functions. Verbal idioms, expressing objective relations, may have different structures. The simplest form is a combination of a verb with a noun. Below are given examples 1) Eat crow Coll. To be forced to change what one has said, admit that one was wrong , etc. , esp. in order to appear more humble I was cheered up when a letter arrived from Luria that the situation might be smoothed over if we appeared to eat crow. ( James D. Watson) 2) Raise Cain Coll. To make a noise or trouble, esp. y complaining or arguing Somewhere to the left of me Sebastian and Mulcaster were raising Cain. Sebastian . seemed in a frenzy and was pound sterling the door, and shouting( Evelyn Waugh) Nouns can be used both with definite and indefinite articles 1) Bear a cross Not fml. To support or tolerate a heavy weight of sorrow, inconvenience, suffering, etc. The poor womanhood has to bear a cross her husband is to o ill to work. 2) Drop a brick Coll. To make a mistake, esp. to do or say something wrong or unsuitable in a particular situation I was dismissed from my job because I had dropped a few bricks in front of some important customers.Many verbal idioms, consisting of a noun , which have the forms of singular and plural numbers are denoted by their real phenomena. For example 1) Keep ones head above water Not fml. To keep out of debt I need 50$ this month to keep my head above water. 2) Set ones cap at smb. Coll, rather old- fash. To try to make ( a man) notice her, esp. in order to make him espouse her They had a chauffeur who was about 18 or 19 and undoubtedly set her cap at him and he became her boyfriend. Plural number of nouns is often used in one of the components of phraseological units.So, the word spurs in an idiom win ones spurs to show ones true ability or courage for the origin time gain fame can be used only in the plural form, because when a man was made a knight , the king would give him not one , but a pair of golden spurs. There are several(prenominal) examples of verbal idioms, in which noun is used only in plural form, because they stand for the action, carried out not by one person or entity designated by them, e. g 1) Be on pins and needles Not fml. To be in a state of excitement and anxiety He was on pins and needles while he was answering my questions . 2) Burn ones fingers Not fml.To suffer from something that one has done or been concerned with, esp. because one failed to consider the possible results Anyone who wants to leave this nice warm securities industry , and go out into the blizzard , will get his fingers burnt. 3) Draw in ones horns Coll . To hold back or control ones actions, e. g. to spend less money And if we dont get some extra money from somewhere we shall have to draw our horns in pretty sharply. ( masthead Murdoch) In some verbal idioms the plural number of a noun does not depend on the number of a person, ca rrying out the action, denoted by this idioms, it epends on the number of objects. Sometimes in idioms, where the action is carried out by several people, the plural form is not definitively established, and the idiom also occurs in the singular. This phenomenon has been observed in such idiom, as 1) Cut off ones nose to spite ones face Coll. To do something because of anger, hurt pride, etc. , that harms oneself or ones own interests By refusing to work they are cutting off their noses to spite their faces because the company will close down.There are several examples of verbal idioms, in which the noun is always used only in singular form, not depending on the number of persons, carrying out the action, indicated by the phraseological unit, e. g 1) Carry a stiff upper lip Not fml. Refusal to complain or show emotion or fear when faced with difficulty or danger calmness The old ecumenic praised the boys for keeping a stiff upper lip in time of trouble. 2) Cook smbs goose Coll. To give out the chances of success of a person, organization, etc. My boyfriend has cooked his goose with me I dont want to see him again. ) Not to have a leg to stand on Not fml. To have no good defence for ones actions or opinions After the results of the test had shown that his plan would not work, he hadnt a leg to stand on. Several verbal idioms are used only in the negative forms 1) Not to see a wood for the trees not to have a clear and complete understanding of something because of the great number of small and unimportant details that demand ones attention The main purpose of education is too often forgotten because of all the present arguments about different types of schools we are in danger of not seeing the wood for the trees. ) Not to know whether one is on ones head or ones heels Coll. To be in a very uncertain and confused state not to know what to do next At the end of a Saturday morning when his shop was very busy the poor shopkeeper didnt know whether he was on his head or his heels. There are a lot of verbal idioms in English loosely with prepositions expressing objective adverbial relations. E. g 1) Have a millstone round ones neck to cause much and continuous trouble to someone You know how selfish your brother is if he comes to live with us he ll be a millstone round our neck. ) Beat ( knock or run) ones head against a brick (or stone) wall Coll. To try to do or obtain something difficult with very little hope of success It is like knocking your head against a brick wall to try to keep the house tidy while the children are at home from school. Non prepositional idioms of this type are very few 1) Hold ones head high to act proudly or bravely, in front of people, esp. when one has suffered misfortune I have boasted in my youth and held my head high and gone on my way careless of consequences( Evelyn Waugh) 2) Put ones foot down Coll. . To be firm in ones purpose or desires, e. g. not to allow ( another person) to do some thing 2. To increase speed when driving a vehicle, esp. a car I dont like driving fast , so I get really afraid when he puts his foot down. Alternants are pronouns one, ones, oneself, somebody, smbs, something , which usually make up an idiom. Alternants can be replaced by other pronouns, nouns or word combinations in accordance with the requirements of the speech situation.The pronoun one is usually replaced by one of the personal pronouns in the objective case, the pronoun ones - by one of the genitive pronouns, the pronoun oneself by one of the reflexive pronouns, the pronoun somebody by one of the personal pronouns, a noun or a variable word combination, the pronoun smbs by one of the possessive pronouns, a noun in a genitive case , the pronoun something by a noun, a variable word combination, or by a sentence . Below are given several examples , which illustrate different uses of alternants ) Take ones time not to hurry be slow and careful wear outt rush . Just take your time and tell me clearly what happened. 2) Take oneself in hand to take ( a person or thing ) under ones control, esp. to try to make improvements You ve been very badly behaved recently. I can see I shall have to take you in hand. 3) Get smb. s goat Coll. To cause someone much annoyance The way he refuses to admit his mistakes gets my goat. 4) Give smb. the cold shoulder Coll. To be unfriendly to someone, esp. by refusing to speak to or meet him, usually because one is angry , offended enigmatic pronoun smth. is often replaced by a noun, a substantive word combination or less subordinate clauses 1) Know smth. from A to Z ( or like a palm of ones hand) Not fml. To know from the beginning to the end thoroughly and completely The teacher knew his subject from A to Z. Indefinite personal pronoun ones is used in the case , when the action is performed by a particular person , directed to him , for example 1) Put ones tail between ones legs Not fml. To put s omeone in a sad and unhappy manner.Replacing the pronoun ones with a pronoun smbs in such idiom is impossible. The pronoun ones is also used in those verbal idioms, which represent the action of a particular person, directed to something, for example 1) Play ones card right Coll. To act in a correct or clever way in order to gain an advantage in a particular situation If you play your cards right you may get an increase in pay . The pronoun ones can be used in idioms, denoting the state of a particular person or object, for example 1) Be on ones last legs Coll.To die or to fall down from tiredness or illness ( of an organization) close to ruin about to stop operational Godspell was on its last legs until the influx of tourists postponed its demise until October. The pronoun smbs is also used in such cases, when the act , done by one person, directed to another person, for example 1) shoot smbs leg Coll. To make fun of a person in a friendly way, e. g. by trying to make him believe something that is not true Many people have phoned in to answer for seeing the kangaroo We thought people were pull backing our legs when they first writinged seeing him, a police spokesman said yesterday.Usefulness of such a distinction, especially from the lexicographic point of view , one can see from the following examples 1) Keep ones nose to the grindstone Coll. To keep working, esp. hard and without a rest Keep smbs nose to the grindstone Coll. To make somebody work without a rest 2) Stay ones hand Rather old- fash. To stop or delay from taking an action Stay smbs hand Rather old- fash. To stop or delay someone from taking an action. Predicative verbal idioms occur not only among substantives, but also among verbal idioms. They have both completely and partially transferred meaning.Below are given several examples of predicative verbal idioms 1) Bite off more than one can chew Not fml. To try to do too much or something that is too difficult John bit off more than he could chew when he decided to have a race with the best runner in the school. There is a comparative subordinate clause . in the second part of phraseological unit. 2) Know how many beans make five, know what oclock it is, know what is what Not fml. To understand what the situation is or how a system works He s a man who knows whats what in the world of business hes sure to get rich.Predicative verbal idioms are not only characterized by an antecedent, show in one word, know, see, strike, watch, but an antecedent explicit in a combination, bite off more, know or see (on) which side, see or watch how (or which way). Some of above mentioned idioms have one literal meaning , as their antecedent retains its literal meaning, for example watch how the cat jumps , but it can also be completely transferred , for example bite off more than one can chew, strike while the iron is hot.Thus, predicative verbal idioms are characterized by semantic complexity of two types fir st is a combination of non transferred antecedent with transferred congeneric clause, second is a combination of both transferred antecedent and transferred relative clause. Predicative verbal idioms have a characteristic expressive evaluative function. Morphological features of non- comparative verbal idioms Words in phraseological units have different features compared with the same word outside a phraseological unit, e. g buck smbs leg Coll. To make fun of a person in a friendly way, e. g. y trying to make him believe smth. that is not true Many people have phoned in to report seeing the kangaroo We thought people were pulling our legs when they first reported seeing him , a police spokesman said yesterday. The verb of this idiom is used in the following forms Present Continuous, Present stark(a) Continuous, Past Continuous, Past Perfect Continuous, Past Perfect ( Passive Voice). Undoubtedly, the above mentioned forms are the commonest . Thus, the verb in this idiom is use d predominantly in several forms, while as a dissolve word the verb pull can be used in all forms.The imperative mood is possible, but it occurs in negative forms Dont pull my leg. You went to the theatre (A. J. Cronin). In several verbal idioms verbs are used only in the passive voice 1) Be gathered to ones fathers euph. To die 2) Be thrown on ones beam-end Coll. To be in a difficult situation, esp. one in which one has no money Many organizations are on their beam ends at the moment because of a lack of public support. But there are idioms which are never used in the passive voice 1) Make bricks without straw Rather old fash.To attempt to do or make something without having the necessary materials 2) Steal a march on smb. to gain an advantage over someone by doing something earlier than expected The government had intended to coif the wage increases of all workers to a reasonable amount , but several trade unions stole a march on them by receiving very large increases b efore the new laws came into existence. Alliteration is widely used in verbal idioms. There can be repetition between two sounds and they are divided into three groups 1) In the first and the last lexemes 1. Burn ones boats Coll.To go so far in a course of action that one cannot turn back I changed my mind about giving up my job, but unfortunately I had burnt my boats by telling my boss that I was leaving. 2. Get smbs goat Coll. To cause someone much annoyance The way he refuses to admit his mistakes gets my goat. 2) In the last two lexemes 1. Be on ones last legs Coll. To die or to fall down from tiredness or illness ( of an organization) close to ruin about to stop operating Godspell was on its last legs until the influx of tourists postponed its demise until October. . Put ones best foot antecedent Coll. To be firm in ones purpose or desires, e. g. not to allow to do something When are they going to let Matt put his foot down and bring the twins back where they belong ? 3) In the lexemes, which occupy other positions in an idiom 1. Keep ones cards close to ones chest Coll. To be very secretive not make known ones advantages all at once He had to keep his cards close to his chest in order to get the best possible contract. We come across repetition of three sounds very rarely, for example ) Cut ones coat according to ones cloth Coll. To remain within the limits of what one has or what one can afford, esp. when spending money They have had another louse up They will have very little money and will have to cut their coat according to their cloth. 2) Make a mountain out of a molehill to worry about or become excited about matters that are not really important at all Im sure hell give you the money back when he gets compensable, so theres no need to start making mountains out of a molehills.Comparative verbal phraseological units The first components of comparative verbal idioms are used in their literal meaning, while other components are intensifi ers and qualifiers, semantic differentiators of the first components. As comparative verbal idioms are not used in the passive voice, so they cant be modify into sentences, they are always phrasemes. These verbal idioms always have a subordinate structure. Comparative verbal idioms are divided into three groups from the semantic point of view 1) Verbs of negative valuation hate, lie, swear ) Verbs of positive evaluation fit, get on 3) Verbs of a neutral evaluation drink, eat, feel, follow, sleep, speak, spread, talk, treat, work and so on. Attention should be paid to the predominance of verbs with a neutral evaluation. In verbal idioms with the verbs of positive and negative evaluation, the second component only emphasizes it 1) Hate smb. like poison to hate smb, very much The general was more interested in his personal glory than in the comfort of the ordinary soldiers, and he was hated like poison by all his men. 2) Swear like a trooper Coll, rather old-fash.To use bad lang uage in an unrestrained manner He swore like a trooper when I complained about his work. 3) Fit smb. like a glove to fit ( a person) perfectly It was clever of you to guess my size correctly the new coat that you bought fits me like a glove. In comparative verbal idioms a second component is expressed by animal names, names of birds, fish and real or imaginative phenomena by which the basis of comparative idioms are expressed 1) Die like a dog Not fml. To die in conditions of great shame, pain, etc. They were in prison for weeks without food and then died like dogs. ) Eat like a horse Coll. To eat a great deal I am underweight and worry about it and although I eat like a horse , it doesnt seem to help . 3) Fight like cat and dog Coll. To quarrel or argue barbarianly , esp. very often Flood says We still love each other very much . But we fight like cat and dog. There are several comparative verbal idioms which refer to people 1) Have a head like a sieve Not fml. To be una ble to remember things correctly or keep information in ones mind I was introduced to her twice, but I still cant remember her name Ive got a head like a sieve.Several verbal idioms never refer to people, for example 1) Sell like hot cakes Coll. To be bought or taken quickly, e. g. because of being very usual or cheap Last year she contributed 40 pointings They sell like absolute hot cakes if you only ask 25$. 2) Spread like wildfire to spread from one person to another very quickly The news of his success spread like a wildfire among all his friends. Nature of meaning of idioms, including comparative verbal idioms, may vary depending on whether it applies to one object or more than one object. So, a verbal idiom hate smb. like poison to hate smb, very much. in the sentence She hates him like poison. It means that she mortally hates him, but he certainly didnt hate her. His attitude towards her is specified in the context. Plurality of objects means mutual hatred. In all t he above mentioned comparative verbal idioms , except the idioms with the verbs feel and look , the second component is a lexeme. In several comparative verbal idioms , as a second component, appears not a lexeme, but a combination of lexemes, for example 1) Fight like cat and dog Coll. To quarrel or argue fiercely , esp. very often Flood says We still love each other very much .But we fight like cat and dog. 2) Drop smb. or smth. like a hot potato to get rid of something dangerous, unmanted as quickly as possible When he found out she had no money after all he dropped her like a hot potato. 3) Go ( go off or sell) like hot cakes Coll. To be bought or taken quickly, e. g. because of being very popular or cheap Last year she contributed 40 pointings They sell like absolute hot cakes if you only ask 25$. In some cases, the connection between the first component and combination of lexemes is non prompt , for example 1) Fight like Kilkenny cats Not fml.To fight fiercely Thos e two children will fight like Kilkenny cats if I leave them alone in the house. Referring to a story that some soldiers in the Irish townsfolk of Kilkenny once tied two cats together by their tails and made them fight. The fight was so fierce that all that was left of the cats was their tails. The fight lasted until the end of 19 century and led to a mutual destruction. Legend, being the basis for this expression, has been forgotten for a long time, which has created non motivation of the whole phrase in Modern English, since the expression has no meaning in literal sense.Conclusion After analyzing semantics and structure of verbal phraseological units , we come to the following conclusions 1) Idioms, characterized by structural stability and completely or partially transferred meaning , are widely used in the language conducting expressiveness, colour to the thought expressed. The notion of idiomaticity represented by phraseology is of special significance for linguistic survey for it appears in many structural varieties and yields certain distinct patterns some perhaps universal, others characteristic of one specific language only . ) There is a great difference between free word- groups and idioms. It is considered to be the most controversial problem in the field of phraseology. In an idiom words are not independent. They form set-expressions, in which neither words nor the order of words can be changed. unaffixed word-groups are formed in the process of speech according to the standards of the language, while phraseological units exist in the language side by side with separate words. In a free word-group each of its constituents preserves its denotational meaning.In the case of phraseological units merely the denotational meaning belongs to the word group as a whiz semantically inseparable unit. 3) The English language is extremely rich in verbal phraseological units. Verbal idioms belong to the class of nominative and nominative communicative ph raseological units, due to the fact that some of them are word combinations, while others can be both word combinations and sentences. Verbal idioms can have completely or partially transferred meaning and they are divided into non comparative and comparative idioms. ) The structure of the English verbal phraseological units is variegated. Word groups and phraseological units possess not only the lexical meaning, but also the meaning conveyed in general by the pattern of arrangement of their constituents. Not only the order , but also the substitution of one of the elements may lead to semantic differences or to entirely different phraseological units. 5) Free word combinations can never be polysemantic, while there are polysemantic verbal phraseological units. 6) Among verbal phraseological units there are two top units ( ) .The grammar centre of such units is the verb , the semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component. In some units the verb is both the grammar an d the semantic centre. These verbal phraseological units can be perfectly idiomatic as well. Bibliography 1. ?. ?.?. , 1986. 2. ?. . , 1973 3. ?. . , 2009. 4. ?. ?. . . , 1963 5. ?. ?. . , 2008. . ?. ?. , . , 1980 7. . . , 1983 8. ?. ?. ? . , 1971 9. ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , 1974 10. ?. ?. . , 1996 11. ?. ?.. . , 1987 12. ?. ?. . , 1998 13. ?. ?.. , 1966 14. Antrushina G. B. , Afanasyeva , O. V. , Morozova, N.N. English Lexicology. Moscow, 1985 15. Arnold I. V. The English word. Moscow, 1986 16. Ginzburg R. S. , Khidekel S. S. A course in Modern English Lexicology. Moscow, 1979 17. Koonin A . English Lexicology. Moscow, 1948 18. Makkai A. Idiom structure in English. The Hague , 1972 19. Minaeva L. English Lexicology and Lexicography. Moscow, 2007 20. Palmer . F. R. Semantics. A new outline , Moscow 1982 Dictionaries 21. ?. , ?. . , 1975 22. ?. ?. . , 1967 23. Longman dictionary of English idioms.Printed by Butler and Tan ner, LTD. London, 1984 24. Oxford dictionary. Oxford University Press, New York, 2007 CHAPTER ONE GENERAL OUTLINE OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS ( PROBLEMS, CLASSIFICATIONS, DEFINITIONS ) Idioms have always attracted the attention of linguists, literary critics, sociologists and philosophers. Enriching the literary language, representing a bright example of purity, accuracy of content and sharpness of language, idioms are of great importance in the treasury of culture and have become of genuine interest for linguists and researchers of various spheres of communication.If synonyms can be figuratively referred to as the tints and colours of the vocabulary, then phraseology is a kind of picture gallery in which are collected vivid and amusing sketches of the nations customs, traditions and prejudices, recollections of its past history, and fairy-tales. Being an inseparable part of the language, idioms have a special position within it. They represent what can probably be described as the most picturesque, colourful and expressive part of the languages vocabulary ( ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , 2008 ).The stock of words of the language consists not only of separate words , but also of set expressions, which alongside with separate words serve as means of expressing concepts. There exist two terms which are to denote set expressions idioms and phraseological units. An idiom or idiomatic phrase, is often defined as a phrase, developing a meaning which cannot be readily analyzed into the several distinct ideas which would ordinarily be expressed by the words composing the phrase. It transcends the ordinary syntactical constructions and must be studied as grammatical unit, or entity ,in itself.On the other hand, idiom is a very broad term and includes all the unexpendedities and idiosyncrasies of the language its rum syntactical constructions, and other conventional practices of unusual character. The term idiom is widely used by western scholars, mainly English and America n linguists. N. N. Amosov? defines phraseological units as units of fixed context, i. e. phrases with a specific sequence of certain lexical components and peculiar semantic relations between them. In these terms , phraseological units are classified into phrasemes and idioms.Phrasemes are binary phrases in which one of the components has a phraseologically bound meaning dependent on the other. Idioms as secernate from phrasemes are characterized by integral meaning and idiomaticity of the whole word-group ( ?. ?. , ?. ?. , ?. ?. , , 2008 ). According to Rosemarie Glasers theory a phraseological unit is a lexicalized, reproducible bilexemic or polylexemic word group in common use, which has relative syntactic and semantic stability, may be idiomatized, may carry connotations and may have an emphatic or intensifying function in a text (Glaser R. 998125). Glaser includes both word-like and sentence-like units in the phrasicon, terming word-like units nominations, which designat e a phenomenon , an object, an action, a process or state, a property in the outside world, and sentence-like ones propositions, which designate a whole state of affairs in the outside world. She get along subdivides nominations into idioms and non-idioms having transparent meanings, and including technical terms, cliches, etc. ( ?. , , 2009 ).Attempts have been made to approach phraseology in different ways. There is a divergence of opinions as to the nature and essential features of phraseological units, how to distinguish them from free word groups, how to define and how to disunite them. This is probably the most discussed and one of the most important problems in the field of phraseology. The complexity of the problem may be largely accounted for by the fact that the borderline between free word-groups and phraseological units is not clearly defined.The so called free word-groups are but relatively free as collocability of member-words is fundamentally delimited by their lexical and grammatical valency which makes at least some of them very close to set-phrases. Phraseological units are but relatively stable and semantically inseparable. Between the extremes of complete motivation and variability of member-words and lack of motivation combined with complete stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure there are innumerable borderline cases. However, the existing terms, e. g. et-phrases, idioms, word-equivalents, reflect to a certain extent the main debatable issues of phraseology which centre in the divergent views concerning the nature and essential features of phraseological units as distinguished from the so-called free word-groups. The term set-phrase implies that the basic criterion of differentiation is stability of the lexical components and grammatical structure of word-groups. The term idiom generally implies that the essential feature of linguistic units under consideration is idiomaticity or lack of motivation.This term habitually used by English and American linguists is very often treated as synonymous with the term phraseological unit. The term word-equivalent stresses not only semantic but also functional inseparability of certain word-groups, their aptness to function in speech as single words. The criterion of stability of lexical components and idiomaticity of word-groups are viewed as not necessarily coexisting in phraseological units. It is argued that stability of lexical components does not presuppose lack of motivation.It follows that stability and idiomaticity are regarded as two different aspects of word-groups. perceptual constancy is an essential feature of set-phrases both motivated and non-motivated. Idiomaticity is a distinguishing feature of phraseological units or idioms which comprise both stable set-phrases and variable word-groups. The two features are not mutually exclusive and may be overlapping, but are not interdependent. Word-groups are structurally complex units consi sting of formally separable elements, which are functionally equivalent to separate words.So they are independent parts of the sentence. Whereas in an idiom words are not independent. They form set-expressions, in which neither words nor the order of words can be changed. Free word-groups are formed in the process of speech according to the standards of the language, while phraseological units exist in the language side by side with separate words. In a free word-group each of its constituents preserves its denotational meaning. In the case of phraseological units however the denotational meaning belongs to the word group as a single semantically inseparable unit.Its worth mentioning that idiom is a complex phenomenon with a number of features, which can therefore be approached from different points of view. Hence, there exist a considerable number of different classification systems devised by different scholars and based upon different principles. The oldest principle for classify ing idioms is based on their original content and is known as thematic (this term however is not universally accepted). On this principle, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin. The word source refers to the particular sphere of human activity, of life, of nature.The thematic principle of classifying idioms has a real merit, but it does not take into consideration the linguistic features of the idioms. The first classification system, which was based on semantic principle, was suggested by acad. V. V. Vinogradov, who developed some points first advanced by the Swiss scientist Charles Bally. Acad. V. V. Vinogradov spoke of the semantic change in idioms as a meaning resulting from a peculiar chemical combination of words. He described idioms as lexical complexes which cannot be freely made up in speech, but are reproduced as ready-made units.The meaning of such expressions as distinguished from the meaning of free combinations is idiomatic. The classification is b ased on the motivation of the unit. According to the degree of idiomatic meaning of various groups of idioms ,V. V. Vinogradov classified them as follows ( Arnold V. , The English Word, 1986 ) Phraseological fusions units whose meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of their component parts, the meaning of phraseological fusions is unmotivated at the present stage of language development. The meaning of the components is completely absorbed by the meaning of the whole.The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning is based , has lost its clarity and is obscure. Phraseological unities units with a completely changed meaning. They are motivated units or, putting it another way , the meaning of the whole unit can be deduced from the meanings of constituent parts. The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning is based, is clear and transparent. Phraseological combinations traditional units which are not only motivated, but contain one component used in its direct meaning, while the other is used figuratively. Prof.Smirnitsky considers a phraseological unit to be similar to the word because of the idiomatic relationships between its parts resulting in semantic unity and permitting its introduction into speech as something complete. He differentiated three classes of stereotyped phrases ( ?. ?. , , 2008 ) 1) Traditional phrases 2) Phraseological combinations 3) Idioms Traditional phrases, which are characterized by reproducibility, are not regarded as word-equivalents. They are usual collocations whose inner form is transparent. They are distinguished as follows 1)Verbal ) Substantive 3) Adjectival 4) adverbial 5) Interjectional Smirnitskys notion of word-equivalence actually allows another perspective on phraseological units too. Namely, proceeding from the classification of words into derivatives and compounds, the linguist seeks to find similar structural and semantic features in phraseological units as well, correspondingly singling out units with one sem antic centre(one summit units) on the one hand, which he compared with derived words, and with two or more semantic centres (two summit and multi-summit units), on the other, which he compared with compound words.Each of the two groups of this structural semantic classification is further subdivided according to the part of speech to which t